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The commonest sites of cancer in the West are lung, skin, large bowel, prostate, stomach and rectum in men; and breast, large bowel, skin and lung in women. The mortality rates are different from incidence rates, with skin cancer having a low mortality rate and lung cancer a very bad prognosis. However, the relative incidence of cancers is changing with time. For example, the incidence of lung cancer has been rising rapidly since the mid-1960s, especially in women, while that of stomach cancer has been falling for both men and women. The rise in incidence of lung cancer is undoubtedly due to smoking, but the reason for the decline in stomach cancer is not clear.
When carcinogens act on a cell, they may cause a permanent change which predisposes to cancer — a process known as tumour initiation. Other agents can then produce transient changes which lead, with continued exposure, to cancer: this is known as tumour promotion. This multi-stage process has been shown in some experimental cancers, where mutagens act as initiators and hormones or dietary constituents act as promoters. The more prolonged the exposure to a carcinogen, the more likely the tumour is to develop. This accords with recent experimental evidence that several genetic events in sequence are necessary for the tumour to develop.
The symptoms caused by cancers are due partly to the local spread of the primary tumour, and partly as a result of metastasis and of metabolic effects of the malignancy.
CLINICAL FEATURES
Symptoms due to local disease
The primary tumour is clinically silent either until it becomes a visible painless lump which the patient notices (this is a common presentation of breast cancer and Hodgkin disease and other lymphomas) or until it invades surrounding tissues. Thus, carcinoma of the lung will cause increasing bronchial narrowing, with breathlessness, cough and collapse of the distal lung. Colonic carcinoma may present with disturbed bowel habit and obstruction. Brain tumours may cause raised intracranial pressure or focal neurological signs. Cancer of the head of the pancreas will cause obstruction of the bile duct leading to jaundice. As the primary tumour gets larger, it may ulcerate and bleed. The tumour may infiltrate nerves and bone leading to pain, or pain may arise from stretching of the capsule of an organ — for example, pain over the liver with advanced hepatoma. Nerve entrapment frequently occurs with pelvic tumours such as carcinoma of the cervix.
Metastatic disease in bone causes pain which is often intense and distressing. One characteristic feature of malignant bone pain is that it is often worse at night. Bone pain may occur in the absence of a pathological fracture or vertebral collapse, but it becomes worse when this occurs. In the liver, metastases cause pain by stretching the capsule. Cerebral metastases give rise to raised intracranial pressure, fits, focal signs and symptoms, and mental confusion. Pulmonary spread may cause breathlessness due to large intrapulmonary tumour masses, diffuse lymphatic permeation and massive pleural effusion.
English英语译成Chinese汉语: Liquid Scintillation Counter: User Instructions
原文文本 - English英语 Liquid Scintillation Counter: User Instructions
Introduction
A liquid scintillation counter relies on the interaction between a beta-emitting radionuclide and a scintillator, a component of the scintillation cocktail. The scintillator converts ionizing radiation from the radionuclide into photons of light (scintillation). The intensity of the light produced during scintillation is proportional to the initial energy of the beta particle.
By placing a vial containing a radionuclide and scintillation cocktail into a dark detection enclosure (the instrument’s detector), the scintillation counter can measure photon intensity. A photosensitive device amplifies the light emitted from the sample vials and the amplified signal is converted to pulses of electrical energy and registered as counts. The counts accumulated during this process are sorted into separate channels, with the amplitude of the signal determining the energy channel into which the counts are sorted. The counts that are collected and sorted are used to generate the sample spectrum. Using this spectrum, the system can perform various count correction calculations and determine counts per minute (CPM) for each sample. To calculate disintegrations per minute (DPM), the instrument will determine the counting efficiency of each sample. Using a quench curve, the instrument compares the quench index for the samples to the quench index for the quench standards to determine sample counting efficiency and subsequently calculate DPM for the unknown samples.
Sample Cassettes
Cassettes are the plastic racks which hold sample vials and allow them to be moved on the instrument’s sample changer deck. Samples are placed into cassettes that accommodate either standard or small vials without adapters (4ml vials require cassettes with adapters). The standard vial cassette can accommodate up to twelve 15-20m1 vials. The mini vial cassette can accommodate up to eighteen 6-7m1 vials. The optional mini vial cassette can accommodate up to eighteen 4ml vials. The individual cassettes are identified by unique numbers (cassette IDs) located at the end of each cassette. The protocol marker and cassette ID can be used as a means of providing positive sample identification. The instrument moves the cassettes in a counter-clockwise (forward) direction during sample analysis.
Protocol Markers
Protocol markers are numbered, plastic devices that contain an encoded, reflective metal that the instrument uses to identify the appropriate assay counting parameters for a set of samples. These assay parameters become a functional part of a protocol once you associate the assay to a protocol number.
Prior to counting samples, you must attach the correct protocol marker (the protocol marker number to which you have associated the assay) to the first cassette to be counted. You should reset the protocol marker each time that you put new samples into the cassette(s).
Getting Started
When you are ready to begin a counting procedure, you will need to perform the following tasks:
1. Calibrate and normalize the counter.
2. Select an assay type. The choice of assay types will differ depending on the model you possess.
3. Attach the correct protocol marker to the first cassette to be counted and load the cassette(s) with samples.
4. Start the counter.
Adding a command to a process
To add a command to a process:
1. Right-click on the window. A pop-up menu displays.
2. Click New and the – New window displays.
3. Select the command that you want to add to the new process using the drop-down menu in the Name entry box. This menu displays a set of available commands.
4. Choose one of these commands and it will display in the Name box. The available commands are summarized in the "Process command reference".
In the following example, the Comment command is selected from the list and the window expands to ask for additional information. The information is added in the spaces provided. The Options Label entry box is for a string that can be used by branching logic to go to this command. Disable Command allows the user to temporarily turn off this command for testing purposes. Parameters Comment is for the contents of the comment being entered into the process.
Click OK; the command is listed on the Process Definition window.
5. (Optional) You can add an additional command by right-clicking in the window and selecting an option.
6. Add several commands to create a process. Each command is entered using the Insert Before or Insert After option and entering information in the displayed window.
The Apply button posts a new command and leaves the window displayed so that you can enter additional commands.
A Trados certificated freelance translator translating from English to Simplified Chinese. I offer document and website translation / localisation, checking and proof-reading. I have ten years IT work experience thus am especially good at translating IT document. My native language is Chinese ( Mandarin ) and I am based in Beijing, China.
EDUCATION
M.Sc. Translation in Science, Medicine and Technology
Imperial College London
M.A. English
Online Education at Beijing Foreign Studies University
M.Sc. Computer Science and Applications
Peking University
WORK EXPERIENCE
2008.6-2008.7 Internship at International Translation Resources (ITR)
2001-2007 Lecturer in Computer Applications
at Beijing Vocational College of Electric Science
1995-2001 Assistant Lecturer in Computer Applications
at Finance and Trade School of Beijing ChangPing District
PERSONALITY
Responsible, careful, punctual, and enjoying learning new things when translating.
关键词： translation, localisation, editing, proofreading, project managment, website localisation, Webpage, help document, Word, Excel. See more.translation, localisation, editing, proofreading, project managment, website localisation, Webpage, help document, Word, Excel, PowerPoint, HTML, PDF, Framemaker, medical, medicine, science, scientific, technical, technology, IT, computer, Java, C, Linux, operating system, CAT, Windows, Trados, SDLX, Catalyst, Déjà Vu, OmegaT, Open Office, Wordfast. See less.
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